Wednesday, October 2, 2019
A Comparative Analysis of the Lvov-Warsaw School and Frege-Russells Tradition :: Lvov-Warsaw School Frege Russell Tradition
A Comparative Analysis of the Lvov-Warsaw School and Frege-Russell's Tradition ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is a comparative analysis of the Lvov-Warsaw School and Frege-Russell's tradition. The Comparison of these is made on the grounds of the analysis of existence. Choosing "existence" as the object of the analysis is very essential. It is so because understanding of the category of existence is strongly connected with the whole system. Thus, while analyzing the category, one can make a reconstruction of the concept scheme (in both traditions); show their functioning; and compare them to each other. It is easy to notice that in both these systems: a) analyzing is strongly connected with the way of expressing existence in a language, b) the essential problem is to which category existence belongs, c) the main question is whether existence is a predicate. Since the problem of analyzingâ€â€especially the problem of applying logic in philosophyâ€â€played an essential role both in Frege-Russell's system and Twardowski's school, the author of this paper wants to show how this was understood there (especially application of logic to some philosophical problems). I. Introductory Remarks G. Frege in the introduction of his "Grundlage der Aritmetik" formulates a general principle: "nach der Bedeutung der Wà ¶rter im Zusammenhang, nicht in iherer Vereinzelung gefragt werden mu" (G. Frege, Grundlage der Arithmetik, Darmstadt 1961, p. XXII, p. 161. H. Sluga, Gottlob Frege, London 1980, p. 94.). This principle is often called a "context principle". It is stated in there that: 1) A term has a meaning when it belongs to a proposition (is one of its elements); 2) Previous analysis of a proposition is a condition for analysis of the term. Such a view presupposes that proposition is something complex and heterogeneous i.e., its elements belong to different semantic categories. The principle given above makes the following distinctions possible: 1) Division of grammatical elements from logical elements, 2) Division of subjective (psychological) elements from objective elements. Quine in his Two Dogmas of Empiricism states that applying this principle makes an important reorien tation in semanticsâ€â€"the reorientation whereby the primary vehicle of meaning came to be seen no longer in the term but in the statement" (W.V.O. Quine, Two Dogmas of Empiricism, in: From a logical point of view, New York 1963, p. 39). From the above it is easy to see that the meaning of a term is connected with its function in the proposition, for as we know the function depends upon it's location in the proposition.
Searching for the Location of Creativity :: Biology Essays Research Papers
Searching for the Location of Creativity What causes an artist to feel so passionate about his work? What leads the artist in his choice of an outlet for his creativity? What is it that inspires the artist? Is it possible that all of this is formed completely in the artists mind? Is it the case that the "gift" of creativity and genius is given to some individuals and not others, or is the gift of creativity merely the plague of a mental disorder? Do these artists even have anything in common? Whitman tends to believe that someone does have something in common with him. This is best demonstrated through his poem "Among the Multitude." Among the men and women the multitude, I perceive one picking me out by secret and divine signs, Acknowledging none else, not parent, wife, husband, brother, child, Any nearer than I am, Some are baffled, but that one is not – that one knows me. Ah lover and perfect equal , I meant that you should discover me so by faint indirections, And I when I meet you mean to discover you by the like in you. Here Whitman demonstrates a similarity between people because of some common ground. Although this poem is meant to express a hidden love between a man and a woman, the idea of a common ground work between people can be positioned between artists. In this work Whitman is saying that people with this tie between them know that it is there and can recognize it in an instant. Great artists with a creative nature share a passion for their art as well as a unique way of expressing it. Where does this passion and ability for unique expression come from? There seems to be a myth encompassing the artists with "madness." Could it be that this genius is only the result of a mental disorder? Diana Applegate seems to have explored this in her paper "Toward a Neurobiology of Creativity? Making Connections Between Art, Manic-Depressive Illness, and the Frontotemporal Dementia." She uses Dr. Kay Redfield Jamison’s book, Touched With Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, as a main resource. Her final conclusion from this is that, "Jamison's book does not provide us with any answers, but it raises several new and interesting questions. If the behavioral characteristics of the creative process are similar to those of a genetic, neurobiologically-related disorder, then it is conceivable that creativity arises from the interaction of certain neurons in the brain.
Tuesday, October 1, 2019
Film Analysis of Jaws by Steven Spielberg Essay examples -- Movie Film
Film Analysis of Jaws by Steven Spielberg The film Jaws was directed by Steven Spielberg from the best selling novel by Peter Benchley. The film was set in Massachusetts resort town of Amity Island in the height of the beach season. When the resort was terrorized one summer by surprise attacks from a great white shark. John Williams created the score to Jaws, which has since become a well-known theme to in depending doom. The film is generally considered one of the scariest movies ever made. It was also set on the 4th of July, Independence Day. Because on this day loads of people are out and go down to the beach to have beach parties which sets the scene from being near and in the sea. As the film starts the music begins to play very quietly and slowly begins to build, which starts to create tension. Then the camera shows the point of view of the shark moving through the weeds making the audience know that something is present in the water building fear. As this happens the music builds up, gets louder and faster making you think something is going to happen building more tension and fear of the unknown. Then it goes to the main opening seen which starts with the sound of a mouth organ being played on the beach. This brings it back to being a safe and un-feared environment taken the shark off the audience’s mind. We also see a large bonfire on the beach which makes the audience think that it is a warm calm (non-threatening) environment. Then the camera pulls back and shows a wide shot of the sea this is a reminder that the shark is still close which creates some tension. There are people on the beach and we see a girl and boy ... ...rody if he keeps missing. Then at the last second Brody shoots hits the canasta in the shark’s mouth and it blows up killing the great white. This relieves the tension that has been building up making the audience give a sigh of relief. And the film finishes with a happy ending as Brody and the ocean biologist swimming into shore. I think the scariest moment of the film was when the shark was in the pond heading towards Brody’s son Michael. Because throughout the film the audience have got to know the family and when the shark was heading towards Michael a lot more tension. Fear and empathy was created because the audience are afraid of what the shark will do to him. Because at this point you have seen what damage it can do which makes the audience a lot more afraid of the shark and a lot more afraid for Michael. Film Analysis of Jaws by Steven Spielberg Essay examples -- Movie Film Film Analysis of Jaws by Steven Spielberg The film Jaws was directed by Steven Spielberg from the best selling novel by Peter Benchley. The film was set in Massachusetts resort town of Amity Island in the height of the beach season. When the resort was terrorized one summer by surprise attacks from a great white shark. John Williams created the score to Jaws, which has since become a well-known theme to in depending doom. The film is generally considered one of the scariest movies ever made. It was also set on the 4th of July, Independence Day. Because on this day loads of people are out and go down to the beach to have beach parties which sets the scene from being near and in the sea. As the film starts the music begins to play very quietly and slowly begins to build, which starts to create tension. Then the camera shows the point of view of the shark moving through the weeds making the audience know that something is present in the water building fear. As this happens the music builds up, gets louder and faster making you think something is going to happen building more tension and fear of the unknown. Then it goes to the main opening seen which starts with the sound of a mouth organ being played on the beach. This brings it back to being a safe and un-feared environment taken the shark off the audience’s mind. We also see a large bonfire on the beach which makes the audience think that it is a warm calm (non-threatening) environment. Then the camera pulls back and shows a wide shot of the sea this is a reminder that the shark is still close which creates some tension. There are people on the beach and we see a girl and boy ... ...rody if he keeps missing. Then at the last second Brody shoots hits the canasta in the shark’s mouth and it blows up killing the great white. This relieves the tension that has been building up making the audience give a sigh of relief. And the film finishes with a happy ending as Brody and the ocean biologist swimming into shore. I think the scariest moment of the film was when the shark was in the pond heading towards Brody’s son Michael. Because throughout the film the audience have got to know the family and when the shark was heading towards Michael a lot more tension. Fear and empathy was created because the audience are afraid of what the shark will do to him. Because at this point you have seen what damage it can do which makes the audience a lot more afraid of the shark and a lot more afraid for Michael.
No Child Left Behind Act :: essays research papers
Proposal           The No Child Left Behind Act, a federal social program that tries to encourages after school programs should be eliminated and the extra funds given to schools to decide where it goes.           The NCLB Act, â€Å"was designed to improve education and achievement in America’s schools in four clearly defined ways: accountability for results, an emphasis on doing what works based on scientific research, expanded parental options and expanded local control flexibility.†Basically the Federal government funds schools for after-school programs to try to encourage school participation among students and reduce dropping out of school. Examples of after-school programs funded by the NCLB act are first and foremost tutoring, then extra-curricular activities such as sports, community service etc. Problems/need           The NCLB Act is not effective because of the current situation of state governments calling certain schools â€Å"failures†because of their low exam scores, thereby reducing funding to the school. If the federal government is funding the NCLB Act for after school programs, it would seem that it was funding a non-effective program. I have broken down the consequences as follows.           -Low test scores, school gets reduced funding and           put â€Å"under state review.†          -Teachers fired, less motive for students to stay           in school. School’s curriculum is ineffective.           -Meaning more money would have to be spent on the           NCLB Act for it to compensate the loss of the           school’s own after-school programs.           -So failing a school, based on government           standards, just to spend more on it? Digging           their own trap hole. Policy Proposals Based on my understanding of the education that I have received and the changes that I have witnessed, there are many alternatives to the NCLB Act, some of which I shall explain below. -Focus on strengthening the curriculum. Subjects should help student in the future. Introduction of GE courses in high school, instead of introducing GE courses in college.
An Interdependent Parter
Created a section of relationships known as interdependent partners. An interdependent parter is someone who you've been with for more than 3 years, have a child by birth or adoption, committed to each other, emotionally and economically viable as a couple. This picture shows a happy couple who aren't married, who are committed to each other. But you can't see from a picture whether there economically viable or good parents to a child.A picture can show the right things but you dont' know if they actually practice them. Two people in a relationship living together who are not legally married. This picture shows a couple living together in an apartment who aren't legally married. This shows the direct definition of a common law relationship. Every provinces has different requirements to get married. Some of the required things are consent, proper mental capacity, being the minimum age, the person you intend to marry can't be close family, and neither one of you can be currently married. This photo shows a wedding taking place. If both parties meet all requirements so they can be legally married. When a married couple lives in separate houses but is still legally married. This photo shows a man packing boxes to move. Because they have decided to separate his wife will stay in the house they bought together and he will have to find somewhere else to live. The due process that legally ends a marriage. This picture shows a man and a women in a court room with lawyers to begin a divorce settlement. Guardians have three responsibilities; supporting the child off their own salary, to ensure all necessities of life are available to the child, to help the child through their physical, emotional, and psychological growth.Neglect: failure to provide basic necessities of lifePhysical abuse: physically harming a child with malice of forethoughtSexual abuse: Sexually assaulting the childEmotional abuse: Harming the child's self esteem, insulting and yelling at them.This photo shows a logo for the children's aid society, one of the services children can reach to if they are being abused or neglected. After parents of a child split up, courts decide where the child will live and who will be his legal guardian. There can be split custody deals where certain parents have him for certain days, or it can be unilateral. This photo shows a child sitting while his parents fight over custody. This shows how intense the fight is and the effect it has on the child. Legal document that states how a persons possessions will be distributed after their death. This is a photo of a will, a legal document that can't be tapered with. The person who creates the will. This photo shows a hand writing a will, the person writing it is the only person who can modify it.
Koyal – a Multi-Purpose Expert System – Md-Cob-Coa Knowledge Representation Using Prolog in J2Se
Koyal – A Multi-purpose Expert System – MD-CoB-CoA Knowledge Representation Using PROLOG in J2SE Prof. Sreedhar Babu Department of Electrical Engineering Amrita Viswa Vidyapeetham Amritapuri, Kerala [email protected] com Archana, Vineeth & Veena Department of Computer Science & Applications Amrita Viswa Vidyapeetham Amritapuri, Kerala [email protected] com Abstract Expert systems are AI? s greatest commercial success. It is a research-oriented application area of AI. An expert system uses knowledge specific to a problem domain to provide â€Å"expert quality†performance. Predicate logic is being used for knowledge representation which is further programmed using PROLOG inference engine for deriving intelligent conclusions. The current research paper introduces a rule-based expert system that provides a medical diagnosis for determining the health problems and classification of birds and animals. The user has to have some knowledge about these topics so that he can query the system. Three knowledge bases are provided for each domain. The specialized computer language PROLOG embedded into J2SE is used to develop this system. Keywords-component: Expert System; Knowledge-base; Medical Diagnosis, Rule-based ES, Knowledge representation PROLOG; J2SE. 1. INTRODUCTION : THE KOYAL EXPERT SYSTEM The current paper of Koyal has mainly two modules: 1. 1. Knowledge Base 1. 2. User Interface 1. 1 Knowledge Base [1 & 2] Mainly, three knowledge bases are required for the system. They are bird? s knowledge base for identifying a bird, animal knowledge base for identifying an animal and a disease knowledge base for medical diagnose. The system uses this knowledge base for finding solutions. Knowledge is represented in rule-based format. The rule of the system is in the form of: IF first premise and second premise, and †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. THEN conclusion This is semantically same as a Prolog rule: conclusion:first_ premise, second_ premise, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Premises are written as attribute-value pair. The attribute is represented as a predicate and the value as the argument to the predicate. Each knowledge base will have to have a high-level goal, which calls the sub goals to be satisfied. When all the premises are satisfied, then the final conclusion is obtained. . 2. User Interface The user interface is the Prolog interpreter? s interface, and the input data is stored directly in the program. It is implemented in Java by loading the prolog inference engine into the java program. The prolog program itself will provide a user interface. The predicate ask and menuask will provide these functions. The ask is responsible is for getting the information from t he user and remembering the user? s response. The ask predicate will have to determine from the user whether or not a given attribute-value pair is true. The ask prompts the user with the requested attribute and value and seeks confirmation or denial of the proposed information. The ask is represented as object-attribute-value triples where the attribute values are tied to various objects in the system. The menuask will further improve the user interface by adding a menu capability which gives the user a list of possible values for an attribute. The main precondition of our Koyal System is that a common user who has no knowledge about the specialized „domain? annot interact with the system and in such a situation the output accuracy will depend on the user inputs. 2. Description of the System Flow The system flow chart represented in the figure 2 displays the flow of the information from one process to another . We can say that it is a detailed representation of the structured chart in the Fig. 2. 1. 2. 1. User The user will enter the text and this text is passed to the inference engine. 2. 2. Inference Engine A rule-based syste m requires some kind of program to manipulate the rules – for example to decide which ones are ready to fire. (i. . which ones have conditions that match the contents of working memory). The program that does this is called an inference engine, because in many rule-based systems, the task of the system is to infer something from knowledge base. This inference engine will prove or disprove the goal/rules in the knowledge base and used to derive conclusions. e. g. a diagnosis, from the data using the rules. 2. 3. Knowledge base The knowledge base contains rules which describe general knowledge about a particular problem domain. 2. 4. User Interface The User Interface will interact with the user i. e. it will query the user for getting information to satisfy goals inside knowledge base. The predicates ask and menuask works here to gather information from user. 2. 5. Working Memory The working memory of a rule-based system is a store of information used by the system to decide wh ich of the condition-action rules in the knowledge base is able to be fire. It might be used to store intermediate conclusions i. e. the satisfied goals and any other information inferred by the system from the data (using the condition-action rules). Finally the inference engine will infer the working memory more solution. . Knowledge Representation Using PL [4 & 5] Since Predicate Logic is one of the oldest and most important logistical approach for reasoning, primarily developed and used in the area of mathematics by logicians as a means of formal reasoning and now it is vastly being used by the programmers for expert systems for its flexibility of accurate natural language representation, this paper also includes the various methods of knowledge representation supported by Predicate Logic that can be conveniently programmed with the PROLOG programming language. The major predicates that are being used in the paper include: The following symbols will be used for logical connectives. ~ not or negation & and or conjunction V or or disjunction ? if †¦ then or implication ? If and only if or double implication Valid statements or sentences in PL are determined according to the rules of propositional syntax. For the estimated validity of uncertainties, heuristics based on either fuzzy or neural network or neuro-fuzzy can be implemented. Let the predicate function B(X) be a bird with a particular name X, then the composite predicate B(X) which needs various functional variables to be satisfied type of family, color, head, voice, flight type, throat, type of food it eats, country, region, tail, size etc. †¦ Fig. 3. 1 represents the associate network for the classification of birds. For X = albatross, the functional variables are family type, color, size etc. are indicated, i. e. , if N1(F), N3(C) and N9(S) are the predicate functions with variables, family type, color and size of birds etc. , then the w. f. f. (well-formed formulae) can be written as follows, E1: ? X BIRD(X) E2: B (N1(F) & N2(O) & N4(N) & N5 (L) & N6(Bi) & N9(S) & N10(W) & N3(C) ) E3: B (N1 (albatross) & N2 (tubenose) & N4 (external_tubular) & N5(at_sea) & N6(hooked) & N9(large) & N10(long_narrow) & N3(white) ) E1 > E2 The various predicates for E2 are defined in E3 ? X B(X) > E3 resulting in X = laysan_albatross The various functional predicates of the composite predicate expression E1 specified in E2 as B (N1(F) & N2(O) & N4(N) & N5 (L) & N6(Bi) & N9(S) & N10(W) & N3(C) ) where F indicated family, O indicates order, N indicates nostrils, L indicates live at, Bi indicates bill, S indicates size, W indicates wings, C indicates color . . Working of the System: [6] †¢ User enters the problem which he wants to know about the particular domain. †¢ The entered query is analyzed and a keyword is extracted depending on the â€Å"domains†. †¢ The keyword is passed to the inference engine. †¢ The inference engine will call the high level goal of the knowledge base that starts the program. †¢ ask/2 and menuask/3 predicate will poses questions to the users and get enough information which is used to satisfy the sub-goals. †¢ Known/3 predicate is used to remember the answer entered by the user. The built-in predicate „asserta? stores the satisfied goals dynamically in the working memory. †¢ Another built-in predicate retractall/1 is used to delete clauses dynamically from the prolog internal database during the execution of a goal thus backtracking can be avoided. †¢ Finally the inference engine will retrieve the final goal from the working memory and provide solution to the user problem. Fig 4. 2 describes the various major predicate functions implemented in Koyal J2SE with PROLOG as supportive declarative language. 5. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING [3 & 7] 5. Introduction to System Implementation Implementation is the stage of project. When the theoretical design is turned into a working system. At this stage the main work load, the greatest upheaval and the major impact on the existing practices shifts to the user department. Prolog files include knowledge base and user interface. The size of the knowledge depends on the awareness of the creator about the domain. By referring theses knowledge base the system will derive solution for the problems. Knowledge base is one factor which determines the expertness of a system. It defines a common vocabulary for researchers who need to share information about the domain. It includes machine-interpretable definitions of basic concepts in the domain and relationship among them. 5. 3 TESTING Testing methodologies are adopted in the course of any system development. Any systems performance is based on testing that it follows. Some of the most prominent methods are: †¢ White Box †¢ Black Box 5. 3. 1 White Box Under white box testing the modules were tested individually and all the bugs were eliminated. This testing method has been of little influence to the whole project since most of the modules have to be integrated for well functioning. 5. 3. 2 Black Box The core testing was undertaken under this testing. Once all the modules were integrated the whole system was tested to ensure that it matches with the specification. 6. THE CONSTRAINTS OF KOYAL EXPERT SYSTEM: 1. The knowledge of the Koyal expert system is domain specific. 2 . Identification of the keyword is critical 3. The user should have some knowledge about the domain otherwise the system will respond with less accuracy. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We humbly express our gratitude to Sri Mata Amritanandamayi, the Chancellor of Amrita Visva Vidya Peettam and the fellow faculty and student members of computer science for the successful completion in the prototype design and implementation phases. REFERENCES Websites: ? ? ? ? http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Expert_system http://www. wtec. org/loyola/kb/c1_s1. htm http://www. aaai. org/aitopics/pmwiki/pmwiki. php/AIT opics/ExpertSystems http://www. paine. org/students/lectures/lect3/node7. ht ml Fig. 5. is the architectural flow diagram of Koyal for the classification of birds, animals and the medical diagnosis. If the implementation stage is not carefully planned and controlled, it can cause chaos. Implementation involves careful planning, investigation of the current system and its constraints on implementation, design of methods to achieve the changeover, training of staff in the changeover procedure and evaluation of changeover methods. This phase of implementation has allowed us to integrate various cutting edge technologies in the project which involves the implementation of Prolog and Java. Testing phase included white box testing and black box testing thought most of the testing was performed as system testing. 5. 2 IMPLEMENTATION The implementation phase of software development is concerned with the translation of the structural design specification into source code. The primary goal is to write source code and internal documentation. Testing, Debugging and modification are performed in this phase also. The first step in developing an expert system has been the creation of a Prototype model of the actual system on the basis of the reference model available. In case of an expert system each system? s knowledge is domain specific so every system has its own advantage and disadvantage. We cannot consider the system as expert in every aspect. This will require time and much effort to develop such a spool proof system. After testing the prototype further modification were incorporated in it by including extra features and implementing the knowledge base part of our system. The prototype is then tested. After the user is satisfied with the function of the prototype the actual system is developed. JPL is a library using the SWI-Prolog foreign interface and the Java jni interface providing a bidirectional interface between Java and Prolog that can be used to embed Prolog in Java as well as for embedding Java in Prolog. In both setups it provides a reentrant bidirectional interface. jpl allows the loading of prolog engine to Java. Thereby we can load the prolog files which contain knowledge regarding the domains. ? Books: http://www. primenet. com/pcai/New_Home_Page/ai_in fo/expert_systems. html A Guide to Expert Systems by Donald A. Waterman Ist Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. [2] Russell, S. and P. Norvig, 2002. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Prentice Hall, Second Edition. [3] Analysis and design of information systems by V. Rajaraman, 5th print, PH [1] Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems by Dan W. Patternson, PHI Pvt. Limited, Eighth Reprint 2000. [5] Expert Systems Theoty and Practices by Jean-Louis Ermine, PHp Publications, 2007 [6] Introduction to Expert Systems by Peter Jackson, Addison-Wesley, Pearson Education Asia ltd. , Reprint 2000 [7] Foundation of Artificial Intelligences and Expert Systems†by V S Janakiraman, K Sarukesi, P Gopalakrishnan, Macmillan Series in Computed Science, Reprint 2001. [4]
Barriers Of Critical Thinking Essay
Today I will be writing on the three barriers that affect me from becoming a critical thinker and ways that I can overcome these obstacles. 1st Barrier- SELF-CONCEPT- With self-concept I deal with low self esteem and insecurities. I guess because I was in an abusive relationship as a young teenager. The words that would come out of the person’s mouth made me feel worthless. And the patterns that have been repeated in my life over and over until I met my husband always made me feel that what I was doing wasn’t good enough and I’m worthless and no good to no one. To overcome this barrier of critical thinking these are the things I can do to feel better about myself so that I can achieve the things that I know that I’m capable of doing. One is to change how I feel emotionally about myself. To change my emotion requires changing two different core beliefs about my self image. Meaning I will work on how I perceive myself. 2ND Barrier- EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ( DEPRESSION)- I cannot really establish a time line of when I became overly depressed but I do recognize some of the key factors that play a role in my depression. The lost of my mother because we never had a mother and daughter bond because of her addiction. The fact that she chose drugs over me and my siblings and I was left to raise children at an early age and never had a childhood of my own. Other key factors I don’t wish to discuss out in public and all the unhealthy relationships I’ve had and always feeling worthless. The one conclusion to dealing with the emotional influences affects my critical thinking is to seek help and talk to a therapist so that I will be able to one day overcome this barrier. 3rd Barrier- STRESS – I believe everyone will have at least a little stress in their life no matter what you do, once you get over one obstacle another arises. So the only thing I can say about overcoming this barrier is that whatever stressful thing that arises in my life I will learn to deal with them head on instead of letting it build up. To keep saying the serenity pray in my head until I believe what it means. And If the situation cannot be changed, such as an illness or the economy, accept it for what it is. Keep reminding myself that accepting does not mean giving up. By accepting the situation and finding ways I can cope with what cannot be changed, stress can be drastically reduced . Learn to relax and look at the big picture. Evaluate my stressful situation from a â€Å"big picture†point of view. Ask myself â€Å"how important is this?†and â€Å"will this matter in the long run?†If the answer is no, it’s likely not worth my time and en ergy.
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